Amid the upheaval in the Islamic world following Muhammad's death, the Umayyad Caliphate lasted for less than a century, but in that time it managed to become one of the most influential of the major caliphates established following him. Its official existence was from 661-750, and the rulers were the male members of the Umayyad dynasty, roughly translated from Arabic as the "Sons of Umayyah." Its primary base of power was in Syria following the creation of a dynastic, hereditary rule headed by one of Syria's long-lasting governors, Muawiya ibn Abi Sufyan.
Like the other caliphates around that time, the Umayyads existed in a constant state of internal struggle and external conflict. Battles over succession, especially over which lineages possessed the more legitimate claim to power, plagued the early years of the caliphate in Syria. The most significant were the First Muslim Civil War in 661 and the Second Civil War in 680. The official right to become caliph passed between branches of the Umayyad clan, but Syria and Damascus continued to be the main seats of power even as the kingdom expanded to include the Iberian Peninsula, the Transoxiana, the Maghreb, and Sindh.
The Umayyad Caliphate became renowned for being a center of authoritarian power, education, and cultural development. The population was multiethnic and consisted of local peoples conquered throughout Africa, Europe, and Asia, including regional Christians and Jews. At its greatest extent, the empire extended over an area of 4,300,000 sq. miles, with over 33,000,000 residents. It was one of the largest known empires in history, even considering modern developments, and a precursor to the Golden Age of Islam.
Scholars throughout history have remained divided on the best way to interpret the legacy left by the Umayyads. On the one hand, they were able to unite a massive array of people and exert control over millions of square miles. On the other hand, they became infamous for their treatment of religious and ethnic minorities, were seen as turning away from God in favor of material excess, and managed to be overthrown by the millions they isolated through their policies. Through it all, they offered lessons for future Muslim kingdoms about the dangers of trying to combine religious beliefs with secular administration in a diverse world, and ultimately, the Umayyads would be replaced by the far more intelligent and crafty Abbasids, who managed to wield powerful tools like propaganda to undermine their opponents.
The Ottoman Empire and Safavids would also vie for power in Persia after the caliphates, and the Ottomans in particular spent several centuries expanding their empire's size, power, and influence, bumping up against Eastern Europe and becoming one of the world's most important geopolitical players. It was a rise that would not truly start to wane until the 19th century. Preserving its mixed heritage, coming from both its geographic position rising above the ashes of the Byzantine Empire and the tradition inherited from the Muslim Conquests, the Ottoman Empire lasted more than six centuries. Its soldiers fought, died, and conquered lands on three different continents, making it one of the few stable multi-ethnic empires in history, and likely one of the last. Thus, it's somewhat inevitable that the history of its decline is at the heart of complex geopolitical disputes, as well as sectarian tensions that are still key to understanding the Middle East.
